Behaviorism and Gender

Making distributivelyday decisions is an inevitable crinkle of our daily existence. The choices we do concerning our diet, outfits, daily hygiene, companions and some others seem as a convening daily routine. Thus, most of the sentence we seldom contemplate on the puzzle out by which we shake up accomplished our daily decision-making tasks. Mean man, different psychological theories back up the judgment that every human air is conformationd and propelled by motives and rewards such(prenominal)(prenominal) as f atomic number 18, money, status, and prestige (Howard and Hollander 43).Humans be pay in ways for the attainment of their goals and scheme of ostracise in timets and consequences that bring pain and suffering (Howard and Hollander 43). In this connection, humanness shape their personalities in parallel with societal expectations so as to gain fond acceptance (Howard and Hollander 43). In this way, the attainment of goal and avoidance of negative experiences a r much assured. Hence, the ontogenesis or encyclopaedism of grammatical gender, a societal conjureual perspective, is greatly influenced by psycho-sociological factors (Howard and Hollander 43).In the early historical period of psychological disciplines, sortistic psychology became the backbone of psychological studies on human behaviour (Howard and Hollander 43). Although modern-day theories have gone beyond the postulates of behaviorists like mule skinner and Pavlov, their psychological principles served as the bases for intensifier and advanced studies in the handle of psychology (Howard and Hollander 43). Through studies on fauna behaviors, behavioural psychologists made assumptions on perception, motivation, and learning of every psycheist (Howard and Hollander 43).They scrutinized every factor that affects behavioural attri neverthelesses of the subject fleshly then utilize it on their observational studies on humans (Howard and Hollander 43). Classical learn Iv an Pavlovs vox populi about learn reflex is a result of his studies on animal digestion (Elliot et al. 203). In his experiments, he discovered that mouse click produces saliva in expectancy of food. The flow of saliva in furrows mouth was observed in response non yet on the army of food dish but also upon hearing the attendants run low during feeding.The dog was conditioned that seeing the attendant or hearing a bell is a level of giving food (Elliot et al. 203). Thus, the dog salivated either in the sight of the attendant or upon hearing the bell. Pavlov called each signal as conditioned arousal. He explained that the food is the unlettered arousal that wind uped salivation as a response (Elliot et al. 203). At first, salivation was aroused upon the sight of food. Then, the food was given simultaneously with metronome. After sometime, the metronome alone caused dogs salivation (Elliot et al. 203). Classical Conditioning and GenderIn squirt rearing practices, at v ery teen age children argon conditioned on the choice of garments and toys appropriate to their sexes. This instruct as absorb by the child shadower possibly be applied on different settings. For instance, the choice of toys based on sexes such as Barbie doll for a girl and plastic gun for a boy, would lead to the childs discretion on the type of feeble or playmates he or she will involved into. This is called stimulus generalisation wherein the conditioned behavior, the choice of toys, affected the preference for games or playmates.On the other hand, if the sign conditioning did non affect other preferences, the child then erudite the butt on of discrimination. Through discrimination, the child has limited his or her behavior only on the conditioned stimulus which is the toy selection in this case. Also, the extinguishing of loss of conditioned stimulus effect on ones behavior is possible. In Pavlovs experiments, by and by several trials of presenting food to the dog with out the metronome, the metronome alone did non elicit salivation when presented (Elliot et al. 203).Hence, a child as age pass-by may lose the conditioned stimulus toy selection on his or her mind. Operant Conditioning B. F. Skinner made refinements on the principles of determinate conditioning and applied his psychological ideas on different human endeavors (Elliot et al. 208). He proposed the importance of living in eliciting a sought after behavior and that surround has great influence in ones behavior. In his operative conditioning, he emphasized that environment reinforces or terminates ones behavior, thus, has the separate fictitious character in understanding behavior (Elliot et al. 208).According to Skinner, behavior is a intersection of a three-connective processes operation performed by the organism, inner condition, and behavioral response (Elliot et al. 208). Skinner elicited desired behaviors among his subject animals such as rats and pigeons with his operant c hamber (Mayers). Later on, researchers tried and true the different reinforcers and scheduling of such to help the shaping of desired behavior. They effect that the acquisition of desired behavior although less(prenominal) through get aroundial reinforcement schedules as compared with continuous reinforcement, but produced much extinction resistance (Mayers).Moreover, punishment applied to achieve the desired behavior or to terminate a special(prenominal) behavior, even though has negative consequences, but effective when immediately and consistently given (Mayers). Operant Conditioning and Gender Behavioral theorists suggested that every creature regardless of race, societal status, sex and profession is governed by the same behavioral principles (Howard and Hollander 44). In terms of behaviorism, the expandment of gender could be possibly explained by making a notion that gender differences and similarities are behavioral consequences (Howard and Hollander 44).Experiments c an be designed to elicit gender behavioral patterns of both males and females through different reinforcement pattern. In behavioral perspectives, men and women could be either aggressive or nurturing if they are awarded or punished in such behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Then, through field studies, behaviorists can assess environmental factors influencing men or women and yield slick explanation for the behavioral effects of these factors (Howard and Hollander 44). Through conditioning process, the gender can be imparted into the childs mind either unconsciously or purposively.The type of garments or toys given to the child may embark into his or her mind some restrictions on the things he or she can be used. In addition, some parents either directly or indirectly, inculcate a male child to imitate his fathers behavior, fill, and style while a female child to be like her mother. By conforming to these parental expectations, the child gains positive reinforcements from his o r her parents that strengthen his or her behavior. With these, the child may form his or her early conceptions of gender role and stereotypes. Criticisms on Conditioning possibilityEven though many studies have been conducted to support the conditioning scheme of gender development, these are mostly conducted with animals (Naik). In 1984, K. Boulding contended the Skinners generalisation about the applicability of the principles drawn from animal studies into complex behavior of humans (Naik). He suggested that to a greater extent studies with human participants must be conducted in rate to prove the validity of Skinners postulates. While Skinners operant conditioning has been recognized in neurosis and phobia therapy, but still shy(predicate) to explain complex human attributes such as language and memory (Naik).In line with this, M. E. P. Seligman proposed that aside from classical and operational conditioning, transmittable preparedness has a crucial role in the development o f behavioral characteristics (Naik). This third factor associates a particular reinforcer or stimulus to a certain response. He further argued that most behaviorist have utilized unprepared sets of stimulus like shock and light, profferd less input for the association process, then created generalization of unprepared behavioral output applicable to general cases (Naik).Therefore, even if the behaviorists principles are valid with approve to their sets of unprepared stimulus in laboratory experiments, but still insufficient to provide plausible explanations for prepared behaviors (Naik). Nonetheless, Seligman cited the hold of Rozin and Garcia (1971) wherein rats were given with sweet-smelling pee as flash of lights and dissension were applied simultaneously (Naik). Then, the subjects were treated with X-rays to induce illness and nausea. After several hours, rats became ill and develop aversion with sweetened water but not with preventative or light (Naik).According to Selig man communicable predispositions led to the aversion of rats with anything that may cause illness on their part (Naik). Conditioned Emotional Reactions The Little Albert Study In 1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner tested the following in their experimental study developing and conditioning an baby to fear an animal through loud and fearing sound the possibility to develop fear to other animals or objects through the conditioned fear and the time duration of the conditioned fear (Brain 135). Waston and Reyner selected a healthy and unemotional, around nine-month over-the-hill child named Albert B.as subject of their study (Brain 135). At the start, Albert has no fear in dealing with animals and other objects. When a metal bar is struck by a draw hammer behind him, Albert develops fear. After two-month observation with Albert, Watson and Reyner conditioned him to develop fear with a white rat by a loud clanging sound, produce by the metal bar and claw hammer, as he pointes the rat (Brain 135). After seven trials of rat and noise pairing, fear was developed with Albert as the rat was presented alone (Brain 135).Then, after cardinal days, the rat, a rabbit, a sealskin coat, the heads of Watson and his assistants, a shorthaired dog, a Santa Claus mask, a megabucks of white cotton, and wooden blocks were presented to Albert. He showed strong fear with the rat, sealskin coat, dog and rabbit, and a mild fear response with cotton (Brain 136). On the other hand, Albert did not develop fear with the mask, Watsons hair, and wooden blocks (Brain 135). Five more days later, the rat, dog, and rabbit each paired with a loud noise were again presented to Albert but he has only showed slight reaction for each stimulus (Brain 136).Finally, after thirty-one days, the rat, dog, rabbit, sealskin coat, and Santa Claus mask were again presented to Albert. Watson and Reyner found out that although Albert still showed fear on these things, he manifested tendency to touch each object (Brain 136). Evaluation and Criticisms The Little Albert Study provided an empirical buttocks for Watsons theory on the development of emotion and behavior (Brain 137). Watson proven through this experiment that emotional responses can be conditioned and learned.He cerebrate that phobias are conditioned responses that probably an original fear with a particular stimulus which has been transferred to another object in the duration of time (Brain 137). in addition with Sigmund Freud, Watson believed that adult personality is significantly influenced by childhood early experiences (Brain 137). However, his work was criticized on the ground that emotional responses are qualitative attributes that can be hardly measured (Brain 137). In addition, since they only have a wholeness subject in their experiment, principles that are valid for general cases may not plausibly be drawn from the results of their study.Since, there was no follow-up studies after Albert has leaved the hos pital, the effects on conditioning made were not determined, thus, Watsons notion on early childhood experiences and behavioral development lacked explicit proof (Brain 137). Moreover, honest issues have been imputed with Watsons works for he manipulated Albert by purposively creating fearing situations (Brain 137). He failed therefore to consider the spontaneous development of behavior through natural settings. Analysis and ConclusionBehaviorists were criticized for their notion that every organism follows similar norms as dictated by their conditioning principles (Mayers). At present, it is an accepted psychological virtue that conditioning principles are governed by cognition and hindered by biological factors (Mayer). In Pavlovs classical conditioning, the subject animal learned to anticipate for an unconditioned stimulus however, animals have biological attributes in learning associations like information of poisonous food through smell association (Mayers).Thus, behavior i s not only elicited through external stimulus such as bell (Mayers). Behaviorists found that animal behavior can be do through reinforcement or the association of a response behavior with eliciting positive or negative stimulus (Howard and Hollander 44). They suggested that this principle as applied on humans could possibly provide clear behavioral explanations (Howard and Hollander 44). As applied on humans, behavioral theorists proposed that consequences of actions could provide understanding of the behavior of an individual (Howard and Hollander 44).This could be done by relating an action with the consequences of a similar action done in the past. Further, behaviorists believed that if in the past experiences, actions of an individual created rewards and punishments (Howard and Hollander 44). Actions that were rewarded are tended to be repeated in the present time while actions associated with punishments are avoided (Howard and Hollander 44). However, behavioral theorists have only considered behavior and neglected thoughts and emotions.According to them, thoughts, emotions or feelings are not behavioral determinants but are just by-products of the environmental effects on ones behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Cognitive and constructive psychologists criticized Skinner for he has given value on the external get word of behavior and underestimated the cognitive and biological precepts (Mayers). For instance, contemporary studies on learning and motivation revealed the crucial role of cognition and physiological brain processes.Nevertheless, operant principles were deemed to control people, thus, led to ethical issues (Mayers). Nowadays, Skinners psychological notions are applied for success reinforcement in different fields (Mayers). Through operant conditioning, a desired behavior is produced by giving positive reinforcements while a behavior is terminated by applying punishing stimulus. Based on the above discussions, the process of socialization ha s a crucial role on gender acquisition and development. Through socialization process, an individual learns the societal norms and mores.The agents of socialization such as family, educational institution, peers, and media reflect and even dictate conditioned gender stereotypes that an individual must conform with otherwise leads to societal ridicule. In line with this, gender stereotypes shaped masculinity as an individuals ability to control themselves on emotional situations whenever necessary especially within the workplace and even in their sexual relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Thus, has influenced male behaviors as being competitive, assertive, independent, assertive, confident, tough, a great deal furious and violent.With these characteristics on hand, males must keep in mind to evade having womanly characteristics such as being expressive on their thoughts, emotional, vulnerable and informal in avoidance of societal ridicule (Lothstein 212-214). In the society, being distaff is traditionally described as nurturing, supportive, and assigning high priority to ones relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Also, females are expected to avoid manly behaviors like being competitive, assertive and often angry and violent (Lothstein 212-214).Therefore, behaviorism views may not suffice to provide a plausible explanation for the development and acquisition of gender. Unlike the subjects of the behavioral psychologists in their laboratory experiments, humans are exposed to the different socio-cultural factors that ad lib affect behavioral attributes. Hence, behavioral theories should be incorporated with other contemporary theories on gender such as psychoanalytic, psychosocial, social-cognitive, biological, and schema theory for a better perspective on gender acquisition and development. Works CitedBrain, Christine. advanced(a) Subsidiary Psychology Approaches and Methods. UK Nelson Thornes, 2000. Elliot, Stephen N. , Kratochwill, Thomas R. , Cook, Joan Li ttlefield, and Travers, John F. Educational Psychology in effect(p) Teaching, Effective Learning, 3rd Ed. Boston, MA McGraw Hill, 2000. Howard, Judith A. and Hollander, Jocelyn. Gendered Situations, Gendered Selves A Gender Lens on Social Psychology. Lanham, Maryland Rowman Altamira, 1997. Lothstein, Leslie Martin. Female-to-Male Transsexualism. Boston Routledge and Kegan Paul plc, 1983Mayers, David G. Psychology, 8th Ed. 2006. Worth Publishers. 9 January 2009 <http//bcs. worthpublishers. com/myers8e/pages/bcs-main. asp? s=08000& antiophthalmic factorn=00030& amperei=08030. 01&v=chapter&o=00510005200053000540005500056000570005800059000600006100062000630006400065000660000100002000040000500006000070000800009000100001100&ns=0&uid=0&rau=0>. Naik, Payal. Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality A Critical Look. August 1998. Personality Papers. 9 January 2009 < http//www. personalityresearch. org/written document/naik. html>.